Examining Children And Domestic Violence

Examining Children And Domestic Violence This essay will explore and critically discuss issues about domestic violence and effects on children with regards to the framework for constructing childhood. I will also briefly describe the historical definition of childhood comparing it to the current definition and the links to children and domestic violence. James and Prout (1997) stated that Childhood can be understood as a social construction as it provides an interpretive frame for contextualizing the early years of human life and it is different from biological immaturity. He also suggested that to an extent the definition of childhood is dependent on the views of the society. The concept of childhood has changed overtime, due to social construction that is fuelled by our views of children, our attitudes towards them and views constructed through human understanding. This change has a big impact on children and how society sees them; these changes are due to political and theoretical influences (James and James, 2004). James and James (2004) suggested that there is a sense loss of childhood, as children are being denied their right to childhood and they are exposed to the unpredictable and impulsive of the adult world too early. History of childhood In Western Europe during the middle ages children were seen as miniature adults, with same thinking capacity and personal qualities, but not the same physical abilities. From 15th century Aries suggested that the idea of childhood has changed but the images and paintings of children changed as a new understanding of childhood emerged allowing children to be seen as distinct from adults because they had their own needs. Shahar challenged the Aries views, she argues that the perceptions of children as adults goes beyond the 15th century; children were perceived as either been born innocent or sullied by original sin (James and James, 2004). The image of the child born into original sin came from the Aristotelian notions overlaid with Judeao-Christian; in this children were seen as wicked and needed redemption. Susannah Wesley recommended that parents must discipline their children so they can be saved from their sinfulness. In the 18th century, children were seen as the nature child, n ature wants children to be children and not merely as adults in the making. John Wesley recommended that parents should break the will of their children in order to bring his Gods will into subjection so they will be subject to the will of God. During the 19th century children were portrayed as naughty rather than evil, but this has continued today for example in books such as my naughty little sister. Towards the end of the 18th century, the perception of childhood was influenced by the romantic and evangelical. Romantic portrayed childhood as a time of happiness and innocence, children were seen as pure and should be protected before facing trials and responsibilities of adulthood; for example by Rousseaus Emile, but it was later propagated by Blake, Coleridge and Wordsworth. Blake saw childhood not as the preparation for what was to come but as the source of innocence, but his views were confused by Wordsworth emphasised that children were blessings from God , as childhood was se en as the age where virtue was domiciled, (James and Prout, 1997). The romantic child was short-lived by the evangelical child, the evangelical Magazine advises parents to teach their children that they are sinful polluted creatures. Currently, childhood is seen as vulnerable to exploitation especially the way which the media plays a big role in the commercialisation of childrens merchandise such as toys and games. Childhood in Britain is often perceived as being a time of innocence and happiness, a carefree time when children should be protected and sheltered from the adult world of sex, drugs and violence (Foley et al, 2001). Children are viewed as vulnerable especially when it relates to abuse or protecting them; Holt et al (2008) suggested that the perception and understanding of children has changed overtime in relation to abuse as there is more research on children and young people who have experienced abuse. The framework for constructing childhood consists of welfare of children, childrens rights and children in a social context. The welfare of children is still a concern which continues to change the policy and legislation in order to promote and safeguard the welfare of children in society. The UK government chose three main points in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) in 1999 which is quality protects (programme to support children aged 0-3 yrs and their families, sure start and National Childcare Strategy to ensure good-quality childcare for children aged 0-14 (James and James, 2004). Race, class, religion, gender and disability shape childrens lives; all these factors have an impact on their health, life chances and educational experience. UNCRC came into force in the UK in 1992, all organizations working with children refer to UNCRC, for example Childrens express and Article 12, aim to increase children and young peoples participation in the society. Unlike adults, children have fewer rights for example they do not have the right to vote as children do not yet have the competence to make such decisions. These special rights are for their protection rather than participation (James and James, 2004). James and James (2004) stated that the social positioning of children is inextricably linked with wider social changes associated with the roles of men and women, families and the state. Changes in the composition of the family structure and the increased involvement of women in the workforce in Western Europe and US have an impact upon the lives of children. External materials and cultural forces of the families, both subtlety and directly shape children lives; but also schools, childcare and healthcare settings influence the lives of children (James and James, 2004). Domestic violence is a health issue that is hidden but statistics shows that it is a problem not just in England but worldwide and it is also an indicator of other forms of child abuse. Evidence from Brandon et als (2008) study shows that if domestic violence is present it leads to two-thirds of cases of child deaths and serious injury, therefore this shows that domestic violence is one factor that leads/contribute to death in childrens cases where children have been killed or seriously injured for example Victoria Climbe and baby P cases. It affects everyone in the society regardless of age, gender, wealth and sexuality. Home office (2010) defines Domestic violence as Any incident of threatening behaviour, violence or abuse (psychological, physical, sexual, financial or emotional) between adults who are or have been intimate partners of family members regardless of gender or sexuality. This includes issues of concern to Black and other Minority Ethnic communities such as honour kill ings. McGee (2000) stated that domestic violence is experienced by women and children of all social classes, ethnicities and abilities. BCS (2001) estimates that one in five (21%) women and one in ten (10%) men has experienced at least one incident of non-sexual domestic threat or force since they were 16. Also when financial and emotional abuse is included, 26% of women and 17% of men had experienced domestic violence since the age of 16. The most affected group as a result of domestic violence are women, as statistics shows 32% of women had experienced domestic violence from this person four or more times compared with only 11 per cent of men (Mullender, 2004). Statistics from British Crime Survey (BCS) (1996) shows that half of families who suffered domestic violence had children aged 16 or under living in the household. Mirrless-Black (1999) suggested that 29% of children experiencing domestic violence were aware of what was happening, children were more likely to be witness abu se against women who suffer abuse themselves. In the UK it is estimated that every year at least 750,000 children witness domestic violence and over a 100-day period an estimated 205,000 children will witness domestic violence (DoH, 2009). Children are affected not only by directly witnessing abuse, but also by living in an environment where their mother (main caregiver) is repeatedly victimised. Children in a home where the mother is being abused are also at greater risk of being abused themselves, or being used to control their mother, Hidden hurt (2010). There are many ways that children and young people can experience domestic violence such as directly being abused or witnessing the abuse as children are aware of what going on, and could be listening whilst the abuse happens. Mullender (2004) stated that what children see or hear when their mothers are being abused can not only include physical violence but also emotional abuse and put-downs, threats and intimidation, sexual jealousy and abuse. Children may witness the family being kept short of money or the abuser taking money from other family members and also experience isolation from family and friends. Also children could witness domestic violence by actually seeing violent and abusive acts/behaviours, hearing arguments and seeing the physical and emotional effects of abuse and when trying to intervene to protect their mother or siblings; but young people may experience domestic violence in their own relationships (DoH, 2002). Research has shown that children are likely to be at risk of physical, sexual and/or emotional abuse if they have witnessed or live in an abusive home. The National Childrens Home (NCH) Action for Children study (2002) found that children living with domestic violence frequently experienced direct physical and sexual assault and that ten per cent had witnessed their mother being sexually assaulted. Abrahams (1994) study found that of women and children who had left a domestic abuser 10% of mothers had been sexually abused in front of their children, 27% of the partners had also assaulted the children, including sexually and 1/3 said that the children became violent and aggressive, including towards their mothers; 31% developed problems at school; and 31% of children had low self-esteem. DoH (2009) stated that although the statistics shows that a high numbers of children witness domestic violence, official statistics are likely to underplay its prevalence. It is difficult to estimate the exact number of women or children that experience domestic violence as not every incident is report or disclosed; therefore the true figures are likely to be higher. Domestic violence has a big impact on children emotionally, socially, behaviourally, developmentally and on their cognitive ability. It can be difficult to research the effects of domestic violence on children due to ethical issues as they are very vulnerable, but it is important to find out what children experience in order to understand the possible impact on children on how to support them to cope. Hester et al (2000) stated that there is evidence that domestic violence has an impact on children but there is lack of knowledge to how factors such as age, race, economic status, gender, disability and childrens resilience influences children. Children can react to violence in different ways depending on whether they are witnessing or experiencing violence as some are more sensitive than others, but it depends on their age. There are two types of behaviours that can manifest in children, this could be externalised and internalised as some children could be more aggressive and are at a high risk of depression (DoH, 2009). McGee (2000) and Frantuzzo (1999) pointed out that children exposed to domestic violence tend to display more aggressive behaviour, have problems in school/home and also behavioural problems such as depression, fears, suicidal behaviours, bed wetting and low self-esteem. Other behavioural and emotional effects could be feeling powerless/helpless, withdrawn, anger, and lower academic achievements; Hester et al, (2000) suggested that this could be short or long term. However, all children could suffer from all of the above at any stage in their life without being affected or witnessing violence, research has shown that it is higher among children who witness domestic violence. Domestic violence can also affect childrens cognitive abilities as research has shown that what is happening at home can disrupt their education. Veltman et al (2000) found that 75% of cases children had delayed cognitive development and 86% had delayed language development. Research has shown that children exposed to domestic violence have difficulty in school, lack concentration and more likely to refuse to attend school (McGee, 2000 and Humphrey and Mullender, 2001). There are long-term consequences of exposure to domestic violence especially to younger children as it is thought that they dont remember what happened; however the effect can be carried to adulthood and could jeopardize their development. Cunningham and Baker (2004) suggested that if domestic violence is carried into adulthood it can contribute to a cycle of adversity and violence. Osofsky (1999) stated that studies have indicated the link between exposure to violence and negative behaviours in children of all age group; similarly Cunningham and baker suggested that exposure to domestic violence can have varied impact at different stages. The social issues of domestic violence are more likely to affect adolescent due to difficulties forming healthy intimate relationships with peers as a result of their experiences; Levendosky et al (2002) suggests adolescents exposed to violence are less likely to have a secure attachment style and more likely to have an avoidant attachment style, i ndicating perhaps that they no longer feel trust in intimate relationships. Violence experienced by infants and toddlers can cause more emotional or behavioural problems as they tend to have excessive irritability, immature behaviour, sleep disturbances, emotional distress, fears of being alone, and regression in toileting and language (Holt et al, 2008 and Osofsky, 1999). Due to their age they are dependent on the mothers/care-giver for care, safety and security so they form the attachment. Studies have shown a link between secure parent-child attachments in infancy with later positive developmental outcomes and these could affect how they relate to people in later life which could affect their normal development of trust and create social problems; research on attachment in infancy has shown that the more serious the level of domestic violence, the higher the likelihood of insecure, disorganised, attachments (DoH, 2009). Furthermore, it can be very difficult for these young children who often cannot describe their experiences in detail as their development is limited and their feelings/emotions are manifested as temper tantrums and aggression, crying and resisting comfort, or sadness and anxiety (Cunningham and Baker, 2004). Children welfare and rights Safeguarding and children welfare is defined by HM government (2006) as the process of protecting children from abuse or neglect, preventing impairment of their health and development, and ensuring they are growing up in circumstances consistent with the provision of safe and effective care that enables children to have optimum life chances and enter adulthood successfully (p 27). Children are defined as in need when they are unlikely to reach or maintain a satisfactory level of health or development which will be significantly impaired without the provision of services (S17 (10) of the Children Act (1989). Some children are in need because they are suffering or likely to suffer significant harm which justifies compulsory intervention in family life in the best interest of children. The Child Act (1989) places duty on every local authority to provide a range of appropriate services to ensure that children in need within their area welfare are promoted. The Act also places a duty on l ocal authorities to make or cause enquiries to be made, where there is reasonable cause to suspect that a child is suffering or likely to suffer, significant harm (s 47). The Children Act (1989) recognises that to promote the welfare of children, services may need to be provided to address the difficulties their parents are experiencing. In order to promote the welfare and safeguard children, all the services and agencies working with children have to come together to provide effective support and services, as when children experience serious inquiries it is evident that there has been a failure of agencies working together; this was an issue raised in the 2003 Victoria Climbià © Inquiry report. Cm 5730 (2003) from Victoria Climbià © Inquiry report recommended that many agencies have to work together to safeguard and promote the welfare of the children which cannot be achieved by a single agency as every service has a part to play. The Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act (2004), Family Law Act (1996), Protection from Harassment Act (1997) and safeguarding children all state that it is a criminal offence if a child dies as a result of an unlawful act of the parents/adults (member of the family) who do not take actions to protect the child. The Children Act s11 (2004) and Working Together to safeguard children (HM Government, 2006) stated that safeguarding and promoting the welfare of children is everyones responsibility and central to all local authority functions. Similarly HM Government (2006) stated that protecting children from significant harm, safeguarding and promoting the welfare of children depends on effective joint working between agencies and professionals that have different roles and expertise (p 33). Furthermore the Local Safeguarding Children Board (LSCB) main aim is to ensure the effective safeguarding of children by all local stake holders and the promotion of their welfare, both in a multi-agency context and within individual agencies (HM Government, 2010). LSCB should ensure better collaboration and co-ordination in cases which require services such as agencies working with both childrens and adult services such as agencies working with parents experiencing domestic violence. Working Together to Safeguard Children (HM Government, 2006) states that LSCBs should make appropriate arrangements at a strategic management level to involve among others, domestic violence forums (p 86). HM Government (2010) states that all health professionals working directly with children and young people should ensure that safeguarding and promoting their welfare forms an integral part of all elements of the care they offer. The Children Act (2004) places a wider duty on the police for example ensuring policy plans including child protection strategies. They also specify the need to respond quickly and effectively to domestic violence incidents (Cleaver et al, 2007). Police have a key role in safeguarding children and working with other agencies to stop abuse (HM Government, 2010). In the past professionals have not worked together to address the impact of domestic violence for children, but measures have been placed to reduce this impact. As health professional we have to be able to identify the impact of domestic violence on children in order to help/support them. Research has shown that professionals struggle to identify and understand childrens experiences so cannot respond appropriately to their needs (Mullender et al, 2002). Children have several coping strategies can be through resilience and being listened to about their experiences but some children can recover quickly as children are different so we as professional need to consider each childs coping strategy. DoH (2009) stated that identifying protective factors and increasing resilience can reduce the risk of harm (p 30). Mullender et al (2002) suggested that a secure attachment to a non-violent parent/carer is a protective factor for children in distress from violence. Similarly, Osofsky (1999) sta ted that the most important protective resource to enable a child to cope with exposure to violence is a strong relationship with a competent, caring, positive adult, most often a parent. This is because violence can jeopardize the development of a childs ability to think and solve problems, but with the support of good parenting by either a parent or other significant adult, a childs cognitive and social development can progress. It is important as professionals that children are listened to, taken seriously and are kept informed and involved in decisions; Mullender et al (2000) pointed out that professional lack sensitivity to children who do not feel noticed or supported appropriately. Professionals need training on how to communicate to children to experience domestic violence by using language which will allow them to talk openly. Children want their voices to be heard as this will allow children to disclose any violence; Mullender et al (2002) stated that listening to children who have lived with domestic violence has meant not only hearing voices that were silent but seeing other cases of violence from a child-centred perspective (p 206). Nevertheless when assessing childs needs, it is important to consider support for the family; Holt et al (2008) and Humphreys and Mullender (2001) both suggested that it is essential to provide an holistic assessment that will take into account the risk and protective factors in each family, especially the mother and child. Likewise Hester et al (2000) suggested that any intervention strategy needs to be individualised to children family context and should focus on stabilising the home environment to minimise disruption. They are several service and support for children who have/are experiencing domestic violence such as the hide out, family care support, NSPCC counselling for children and counselling and strong families programme. The hide out is a child friendly website for children and young people, it was created by Womens Aid to help children and young people to understand domestic abuse, and how to take positive action if its happening to you. Stronger families programme is a 12 week therapeutic group programme from children and mothers who have experienced domestic violence. The aim is to achieve safety, empowerment and a safe place to discuss feelings. It helps towards the reparation to mother child relationship through a mother and child group. It is an inter-agency collaborative model that is offered throughout Nottingham city. The Stronger Families programme is based on the successful model originally initiated in Ontario, Canada. The Community Group programme for children exposed to women abuse has over 20 years of experience and research. It is based on early research by Peter Jaffe et al in London Ontario. In 1986 first manual and groups for children, 1996 favourable evaluation and in 1997 practitioners manual published. The London borough of Sutton has been instrumental in introducing the programme for children affected by domestic violence in the UK. Nottingham is now one of the first areas in the UK to offer the full group treatment programme to local mothers and children. In 1996 the programme was evaluated and it was found that children improved their ability to identify abusive actions and behaviours and children improved in their strategies to manage interpersonal conflict. Overall there was a positive satisfaction post group from both mothers and children. To improve the outcomes of domestic violence for children and young people, professional need to make children more aware of domestic violence and where to get help/support if they or friends are experiencing violence, especially in the community for example schools or places young people are more likely to go. McGee (2000) suggested that children and young people need more information about domestic violence and leaflets should be avialblae thorough schools and community, whilst Humphreys and Mullender (2001) suggested that raising awareness in youth settings is another to help change people attitudes. Young people suggested that an educational campaign involving discussion about the media pressure and peoples attitudes towards violence (Mullender et al, 2000); similarly McGee (2000) recommended the need to have a public education campaign which is aimed at adults and children to address domestic violence, for example the Zero tolerance campaign in schools, media campaign to direct young people for support and information and raising awareness as well as providing support in schools for children experiencing domestic violence.

Beowulf Essay Introduction Essay

No one from Anglo-Saxon epos survived to our days has received such widespread recognition as â€Å"Beowulf†. This poem is the only major work of heroic epic, preserved entirely. Apparently, the song was born in a military circle, because the main place is reserved for battles, soldiers, and feasts. A description of other aspects of the life of Anglo-Saxon society is absent. A composition arose on the basis of ancient Germanic traditions related to pagan times. They appeared among local tribes long before the Anglo-Saxon resettlement on the territory of Britain. Events in the poetry take place on the shores of the Baltic Sea while its plot is borrowed from German mythology. The work includes two parts and tells about exploits of the brave Geat Knight Beowulf, who rescued Denmark from a terrible sea monster Grendel. For the past twelve years, Heort has been attacked by this beast. To help King Hrothgar, with fourteen soldiers, the protagonist floats. Generously awarded Beowulf returns to his homeland and tells King Hegelac about everything that happened to him. The latter gives him the land, and when his son Heardred dies in a battle with the Swedes, Beowulf becomes a king of the Geats. The second part of narrative depicts how, after fifty years of prosperous reign, Beowulf enters the battle with a fire-breathing dragon descended his possessions. He gets a mortal wound and dies, appointing his successor. In its composition, the poem is a complex phenomenon. The motifs of legends are combined with elements indicative of their later processing in the spirit of the Christian religion. From the text of a story, names of pagan gods disappeared, but biblical ones are mentioned. Thus, Grendel is called a descendant of Cain, sea monsters are hell spawns. The work repeatedly points to an intervention of God in the ongoing events. Poem’s spirit is in clear contradiction with later stratifications and insertions. A satirical fantasy reflects a mythological interpretation of history and relationship of tribes during the early Middle Ages. People are shown in their encounter with formidable forces of nature, represented in the images of a stormy sea, sea monsters, or a fire-breathing dragon. Piety and God-fearing are not dominant qualities of our hero. He does not have asceticism. In his character, there is the fullness of a primitive but integral personality. Such personage embodies features that give an idea about an ideal medieval warrior. The construction of the work is complicated by the fact that the story of Beowulf’s life and deeds is not always given in a certain sequence. Much of what is told about the main character is retrospective. Some episodes contain information about Germanic tribes and include details from the history of royal families of Geats, Danes, Swedes, and continental Angles. Poetic speech as a rhythmic structure of the composition is original. Widely used is the reception of parallelism, characteristic of epic monuments. Multiple repetitions of the same motif accent certain episodes of a plot and deepen their inner meaning. This refers to the topic of generic revenge. Thus, a thought is stressed that revenge for the deceased kin is a warrior’s duty. Thus, based on the poem â€Å"Beowulf†, you can get information about English soldiers of this era. However, a song covers only those traits that, in the public opinion of that community, a perfect warrior-ruler should have had. A work may be of interest to people involved in clarifying and studying ancient customs, for instance, there is a mention of a burial ceremony, etc. Through the eyes of a contemporary one could see an outlook of our ancestors.

The Tried and True Method for Term Paper Writer in Step by Step Detail

The Tried and True Method for Term Paper Writer in Step by Step Detail Still at other times, the writer, as a result of personal difficulties, illness, or other commitments, may be unable to to perform work, and again may have to deal with financial shortages. A lot of people choose to prevent the financial trap of a student loan and instead make their way into the workforce. There are lots of studies which look at the effects of pay inequality on performance. The reasons might be absolutely different. Where to Find Term Paper Writer Together with the UK Essay Help undergraduates cannot be concerned about the time but delight in a complete life. Work is done under various Subjects each headed with a Referee. Students lead busy lives and frequently forget about an approaching deadline. As a consequence, such students start looking for the best essay help to be sure their project is going to be produced at the maximal level in agreement with all academic standards. You are able to buy essays online from various companies nowadays, so please be conscious of the simple fact that lots of them have already pre-written essays or maintain a database of the completed papers. After you buy your customized paper from one of our experienced term paper writers, you may rest assured your paper will be entirely distinctive and superior to all your classmates'. Today, thousands of essays in addition to term papers on the internet can be discovered on the Internet with flying colors. Essay papers are most likely the most spread ones. Ideas, Formulas and Shortcuts for Term Paper Writer Our writers have a tremendous knowledge in composing several types of study papers on over 50 subjects. A thesis is typically a scientific report. Term Paper Writer for Dummies When someone else writes that troublesome paper that's best for you, you're likely to have more time on your hands to concentrate on other assignments and you'll feel a lot less stress also. Do not becom e stuck with material possessions and what you've achieved in life. When you compose a resume for the very first time, it may take you some time to put everything in order and create your CV appear presentable. Academic Writing Pro is the number 1 website that sell the ideal paper writing service in united states Time to time we have to upgrade our abilities and talent too, hence going into the zone of the expert degree course will be the very best idea to satisfy your dreams. Term Paper Writer and Term Paper Writer - The Perfect Combination It's possible to always reach out to your writer to supply additional information or request information regarding the order's progress. Our site provides custom writing help and editing support. You can rely on the ideal essay help online. The students may also read reviews on the net regarding the writing service and they're able to read and check out which writing service is the very best and if they need to work with it or not. Try u s once and you will be back again and again! Accordingly, at specific times of the calendar year, the writer simply may have no projects. You may don't hesitate to place an order with us and more than 600 writers are waiting to give you a hand. Accordingly, you ought to ensure that you're able to order an article anytime you need and get it done a few hours. Life After Term Paper Writer The number of paragraphs in an essay changes based on the number of ideas that you wish to go over. When you are deciding on the topic for your assignment, it's very important to learn your true aim. If you don't find out how to begin your essay or where to search for supporting data, we'll be happy to help you. Much like all things associated with your college program, you will want to get started drafting your application essay far ahead of the due date. Your paper is going to be of the greatest possible standard and will be professionally edited and proofread to make sure there are not a ny errors. Sample term papers ought to be strictly weighed side by side with the matter of plagiarism. If you are in need of a term paper essay that's customized to satisfy your exact academic wants, then you've found the proper term paper writing service. In fact, you can depend on us should you want to have an essay, or a different kind of instructional paper when you feel the load of getting an excessive amount of work. Therefore, for your convenience, you have a superb chance to monitor the development of the assigned writer and make sure an essay will be ready in a timely method. It's just normal to be concerned about hiring an online essay author as possible never be certain whether you're employing the proper service or not. More than ten years past, essay writer wouldn't be accomplished. It's only normal to be anxious about hiring an on-line essay writer since you can not ever be sure whether you are employing the correct service or not. The Chronicles of Term Paper Writer Essay writing is our principal specialization. One, we apply an extremely careful collection of our writers. Our writers also undergo a string of other training that may truly convince us they are great for the job. Our talented writers can deal with nearly every kind of writing assignment, along with Math and Physics difficulties and a lot more.

Definition and Examples of Standard American English

The term Standard American English customarily refers to a variety of the English language thats  generally used in professional communication in the United States and taught in American schools. Also known as  Edited American English, American Standard English, and General American. Standard American English (SAE or StAmE) may refer to either written English or spoken English (or both).Standard American English is not a myth, say linguists William Kretzschmar and Charles Meyer, but it is not identical with the language of any natural population of speakers; it is a very real institutional construct that has attracted the loyalty of a committed group of speakers who claim that they speak it (The Idea of Standard American English in  Standards of English, 2012). Examples and Observations The notion of a widespread, normative variety, or standard dialect, is an important one, but it is not always easy to define in a precise way, especially for English. . . .In the United States, we dont have a language academy, but we have many grammar and usage books that people turn to for the determination of standard forms. The key words in this definition are prescribed and authority so that the responsibility of determining standard forms is largely out of the hands of most speakers of the language. . . .If we took a sample of everyday conversational speech, we would find that there are virtually no speakers who consistently speak formal standard English as prescribed in the grammar books. In fact, it is not unusual for the same person who prescribes a formal standard English form to violate standard usage in ordinary conversation.(Walt Wolfram and Natalie Schilling-Estes, American English: Dialects and Variation, 2nd ed. Blackwell, 2006)Standard American English UsageStandard A merican English usage is linguistic good manners, sensitively and accurately matched to context—to listeners or readers, to situation, and to purpose. But because our language is constantly changing, mastering its appropriate usage is not a one-time task like learning the multiplication tables. Instead, we are constantly obliged to adjust, adapt, and revise what we have learned.(The Columbia Guide to Standard American English. Columbia University Press, 1993)Standard American English and Social PowerStandard American English is not a variety of English that is inherently standard, or better, or more beautiful, or more logical than other forms of English. What makes it standard is that some speakers of American English have the social power to impose the variety of English they happen to use on speakers of other varieties. They are in a position to make their English the prestigious form of English. They can do so thanks to their social power. Since this social power is desire d by other people, the English spoken by people with power is also desirable for others. In this sense, the possession of the prestigious variety is the possession of social power.(Zoltan Kovecses,   American English: An Introduction. Broadview, 2000)Standard American English Pronunciation- StAmE pronunciation differs from region to region, even from person to person, because speakers from different circumstances in and different parts of the United States commonly employ regional and social features to some extent even in formal situations.(William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., Standard American English Pronunciation. A Handbook of Varieties of English, ed. by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider. Mouton De Gruyter, 2004)- As for pronunciation, Standard American English is best defined as the avoidance of pronunciations associated with particular regions or social groups.(William A. Kretzschmar, Jr. and Charles F. Meyer,  The Idea of Standard American English. Standards of English:   Codified Varieties Around the World.  Cambridge University Press, 2012). Also see: American EnglishEdited American English (EAE)General American EnglishAfrican-American Vernacular English (AAVE)American SpellingLanguage StandardizationNonstandard EnglishPrescriptive GrammarPrestigeStandard British EnglishStandard EnglishWhat Is Standard English?